The United States Invasion Of Privacy - 1224 Words

Invasion of Privacy People might not think about being watched when they’re posting personal experiences in their life on social media. The government has the ability and justification to go through a person’s social media site, listen to phone calls, and read text messages as a way of narrowing down possible suspects for terrorism. The privacy laws in America are what allows the U.S. government to search the digital world for possible threats to the country. Although some say that privacy laws help American citizens keep their confidentiality for medical reasons, also as benefits for social security, I still maintain that privacy laws gives the government undeserved power and can give the impression of being watched . In today’s society, the world is seemingly revolved around violence. We are always looking for innovative ways to prevent violence from breaking out. The newly formed terrorist group, ISIS, slaughtered civilians in paris due to explosions they had a hand in. ISIS is the world’s problem today, and their next target is the United States. America can take measures to eradicate this terrorist group, but we are aware that there may be ISIS members hidden in the country already. As a result, the government uses their surveillance technology to search through the digital world in an effort to prevent an attack on our home land. If the Government has the ability to trace calls or to look at someone s online searches, they might be able to prevent attacks onShow MoreRelatedU.s. Forest Service Violated The Privacy Act868 Words   |  4 PagesARGUMENT I. THE U.S. FOREST SERVICE VIOLATED THE PRIVACY ACT BY DISCLOSING PERSONNEL RECORDS THAT CONSITUTE A CLEARLY UNWARRANTED INVASION OF PERSONAL PRIVACY. Privacy matters, and Congress agreed: The Privacy Act’s purpose is â€Å"to provide certain safe guards against an invasion of personal privacy by requiring federal agencies . . . to . . . be subject to civil suit for any damages which . . . violates any individual’s rights under this act.† Law Review UGA (quoting another law review). Under 5Read More Essay on Internet Privacy - Invasion of Privacy on the Internet964 Words   |  4 PagesInvasion of Privacy on the Internet       Invasion of privacy is a serious issue concerning the Internet, as e-mails can be read if not encrypted, and cookies can track a user and store personal information. Lack of privacy policies and employee monitoring threatens security also. Individuals should have the right to protect themselves as much as possible from privacy invasion and shouldnt have to give in to lowered standards of safety being pursued by the government.    EncryptionRead MoreThe West Bengal National University Of Juridical Sciences1621 Words   |  7 Pagesof the right thinking and reasonable members of the society. Privacy can be understood as â€Å"The right to be let alone† Invasion of privacy means the â€Å"unauthorized interference with a person’s seclusion of himself from the public† Invasion of privacy and publication of such private information may result in the defamation, and as such, a cause of action for defamation arises. This essay concerns questions regarding invasion of privacy, and publication of such information, and also, the defences whichRead MoreThe Freedom Of Information Act743 Words   |  3 Pagesmost likely to precipitate privacy tensions are Exemptions 6 and 7c. The first of these relates to information such as personnel and medical files, the disclosure of which would â€Å"constitute a clearly unwarranted invasion of personal privacy.† Exemption 7c excludes records or information compiled for law enforcement purposes, â€Å"but only to the extent that the production of such [materials] †¦ could reasonably be expected to constitute an unwarranted invasion of personal privacy.† In the major decisionRead MoreThe Liberties Of The United States1650 Words   |  7 PagesWithin the Constitution of the United States of America, the word â€Å"privacy† appears exactly zero times. Not once does the legal document that outlines the social order of the United Sates, define, or explicitly state a â€Å"right to privacy† for its citizens. Even with this fact prevailing over society, American citizens still esteem privacy in the highest regard. According to a survey conducted by the PEW Research Center, a nonpartisan fact tank that informs the public about the issues, attitudes andRead More1984 Research Paper On 1984 Essay1026 Words   |  5 Pageswith citizens pursuit of happiness. With that being said, if a citizen’s privacy was invaded then their pursuit of happiness would be demolished. The government should not be able to spy on its citizens because it is a major invasion of privacy, people become fearful of the government, and is a large vio lation of the rights citizens are permitted. To begin, the government spying its citizens is a major invasion of privacy. The government has plenty of ways to assure citizen’s freedom withoutRead MoreHome Purchase And Sales Research Paper1021 Words   |  5 Pagesand schedule an appointment. Privacy and Social Media Data Breaches and Identity Theft Identity theft scams continue to spread throughout the state of Massachusetts, as well as around the country. These scams are frequently solicited through phone calls and email. Victims are tricked into providing their Social Security numbers, which may eventually be used to steal their identity. Another scam involves impersonating the Internal Revenue Service through the United States Postal Service. In this scamRead MoreNSAs invasion of privacy1408 Words   |  6 Pages NSA’s Invasion of Privacy Whether it is calling someone on your phone or online shopping on the computer, people are more connected than ever to the internet. However, a person might be oblivious to the fact that they are being watched using these technologies. The NSA (National Security Agency) is an intelligence organization for the U.S. to protect information systems and foreign intelligence information. Recently the NSA has been accused of invading personal privacy through web encryptionRead MoreThe Invasion Of Privacy And Concern For Safety1624 Words   |  7 PagesIntroduction: The invasion of privacy and concern for safety has been an increasing worry among people who live in the United States and across the world. The main issue is how does the government’s actions change how people view their own security and even national security. Broader theories of this research question would be how the government’s interaction with technology and security influence how people think about their own personal privacy and safety as well as our national security. SomeRead MoreCensorship Of Public s Privacy1321 Words   |  6 PagesV. Free Speech Coalition (00-795) 198 F.3d 1083, affirmed,2002) In the 21st century, technology has advanced significantly, making invasion of privacy much easier and much more common. Thus, due to the government’s implementation of censorship in society today, the invasion of public’s privacy is a much greater issue. As a result of the invasion of the public’s privacy, human rights are constantly violated, which directly causes anger within the public body towards the government. To begin, many

The Evolution and Analysis of the Principle of Legitimate Expectation - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 10 Words: 2985 Downloads: 3 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Law Essay Type Analytical essay Did you like this example? I. Introduction à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“A man should keep his words. All the more so when promise is not a bare promise but is made with the intention that the other party should act upon ità ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ [1] A law cannot be found upon mere trust and expectations, no matter how reasonable it may sound. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "The Evolution and Analysis of the Principle of Legitimate Expectation" essay for you Create order For the individuals to act on the law, the law has to be concrete and defined. Therefore, laws are codified and precedents are established, to bring about the union of constancy and certainty. Laws, once formed, create expectations in the mind of the persons that such laws will be justly implemented and observed by the administrative authorities with any sort of arbitrariness. At the same time, laws have to undergo constant changes and modifications and repealments to meet the challenges of a constantly changing society and to do more justice. The principle of legitimate expectancy keeps a check on the arbitrary exercise of power by public authorities, by defining the ambit within which the administrative authorities can change the law, and in this manner giving relief to an aggrieved individual against an arbitrary use of power even when such relief does not exists under statute law. II. The Principle of Legitimate Expectation Lord Denning[2] first made the mention of the prin ciple of legitimate expectation, which was later adopted by courts all over the world.[3] The doctrine of à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“legitimate Expectationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  falls within the ambit of public law. The principle protects individuals from an arbitrary exercise of administrative authority by a public body and offers relief to those who has suffered a civil wrong due to the non-fulfilment of his legitimate expectations. However, under the strict meaning of the principle under the law, the claimant has no rights under this principle in a court of law.[4] It positions itself between à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“a rightà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  and à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“no rightà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ , giving an individual a right to approach the court, and differs from hope and desire. The principle has been widely implemented by Indian Courts to restrict the arbitrary exercise of power by administrative system. In general, a person has a right to approach the courts for relief under private law when his rights arising out of a statute or contract has been violated. However, in public law, this rule relaxes the rule of locus standi by permitting an individual to approach the courts whenever his rightful expectations from the administrative bodies have been breached.[5] Therefore, this doctrine is considered to be developed from the principles natural justice and comes under Article 14 of the Constitution.[6] Essentially, the principle of legitimate expectation protests against arbitrariness and encourages fair dealing by public authorities. Like majority of other doctrines in administrative law, legitimate expectation is a theory created by the Courts for the examination of administrative actions. III. Types of Legitimate Expectation Originally having a procedural aspect, with the evolution of the doctrine of legitimate expectation, the doctrine was divided into two categories by the courts. In common law, Lord Diplockà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s decision in the case of Council of Civil Service Union v. Minister for Civil Service,[7] laid down the two facets of the doctrine. The Indian Court acknowledged these two aspects given by the English Court in the case of National Buildings Construction Corporation v S. Raghunathan[8]. The two aspects of legitimate expectations are: A. Procedural Aspect This is the most frequently used aspect of legitimate expectation. The procedural aspect raises and preserves the principles of natural justice and maintains equity and fairness. It prevents the public bodies from arbitrary and unreasonable exercise of administrative power. The procedural aspect assures that an appropriate and fair hearing will be carried out, and an opportunity to make representations will be provided before taking any hostile decision against the expectations of the individual.[9] B. Substantive Aspect The substantive aspect although a later addition to the doctrine, yet covers half the cases which within judicial review. The substantive aspect of the doctrine endorses and preserves the principle of equity and the doctrine of estoppel. It necessitates a representation through an assurance or regular past practice, which secures a benefit or an advantage to an individual.[10] The substantial aspect safeguards the individual against any aberration from this r epresentation, and protects the individual against any harm suffered during the sequence of events. IV. Evolution in English Law The principle of legitimate expectation was first used in Schmidt v. Secy of Stare for Home Affairs[11], in which the government had curtailed the time period already allowed to an alien to arrive and stay in England. It was held that the rightful expectations of an individual cannot be thwarted by the administrative authorities unless a fair and reasonable procedure is followed. In the present case, legitimate expectation was only used to replace the term à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“rightà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ . However, this case laid down the groundwork for subsequent development; the doctrine has since developed and occupied a strong position in administrative law jurisprudence. After this case, the doctrine was expansively discussed in Breen v. Amalgamated Engg. Union[12] where the district committee of a trade union had deprived endorsement of a member from being elected as shop steward. The court held that when an individual has rightful expectations that his election will be permitted, he cannot be deprived of the same without a fair ground of objection. The court in abovementioned case acknowledged that legitimate expectation is a part of the principles of natural justice. Likewise, in case of Attorney General of Hongkong v. Ng Yuen Shiu[13], while crushing the directive of removal passed by the Hong Kong Immigration Authority without notice and hearing, the court decided that the statement made by the concerned authority that while investigating cases of illegal immigration, each case shall be judged on merits and facts. This is based on the principle of legitimate expectation between immigrants that removal order shall be delivered following a procedure of hearing and fair notice. Raising the doctrine of legitimate expectation, the House of Lords in Council of Civil Service Union v. Minister of Civil Services[14] decided that legitim ate expectations may take birth from a time-honoured past practice or a communication or a promise made by the public body. In the present case, the authority had revoked an established past practice by oral orders. However, the doctrine of legitimate expectation enforces a duty upon public bodies to act judiciously in general, not restricted to circumstances where an individual has to be given a fair chance to make representation. Hereafter, the doctrine levies broad limitations upon administrative bodies to act reasonably and with fairness in the interest of people, regardless of whether law decrees discussion from such people or not.[15] In R v. Secy of State for Home Deptt., Ex. P. Asif Mahmood Khan[16], the court decided that when an authority makes a statement as regards the process that shall be followed, it generates a legitimate expectation amongst the people that the same shall be observed. Hereafter, the authority is under a responsibility to follow the stated procedure. The principle as evolved in England over the course of last three decades has assumed major importance and has been acknowledged by several jurisdictions, including India. However, it is still in a developing stage, where each jurisdiction has restricted its growth taking into consideration their local circumstances. The Indian Courts have recognised the doctrine as a law of land to deter public bodies from an arbitrary exercise of powers. V. Application of the Principle in India The Principle of Legitimate Expectation in India has originated from common law like many other principles. In India, this doctrine has been implemented through the mechanism of judicial review, scrutinizing the actions of public bodies on grounds of fairness. The principle of legitimate expectation was first acknowledged in India in the case of State of Kerela v. K.G Madhavan Pillai[17], where legitimate expectation produced by a sanction order was used to reject a later order on the ground of abu se of natural justice. The resulting application of the principle was in the case of Scheduled Castes and Weaker Section Welfare Association v. State of Karnataka[18]. In this case, the action of an administrative authority formed a rightful expectation in the mind of the public and therefore this resulted in the requirement of a just hearing when the authority acted in a manner to thwart that expectation. Legitimate expectation is generated by the administrative bodies either through an express assurance to the public to act in a certain way or doing certain things or through recognized practice or previous actions which produce expectations in the minds of the public.[19] This principle is applied exclusively in the framework of administrative law, and confers an obligation on the authorities to justify any nonconformity from recognized practices or promise, to limit any arbitrariness in their conduct.[20] A. Nature and Scope of Legitimate Expectation The scope of legitim ate expectation was explored in the case of Navjyoti Coop. Group Housing Society v. Union of India[21]. The case gave the opportunity to the courts to scrutinize any decision made by the administrative authorities, if their decision affected an individualà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s right to enjoy certain benefits which formerly he was allowed to enjoy and rightfully expected to continue to enjoy in the future. The decision made it certain that only a superseding public policy would be able to clarify nonconformity from what has been rightfully expected. This conferred an obligation on the authorities to act reasonably and in the interest of the general public. The overriding of public policy was applied in the judgment of Food Corpn. of India v. Kamdhenu Cattle Feed Industries.[22], to demonstrate nonconformity with the rightful expectation to grant tender to the highest bidder. In the case of Ram Pravesh Singh v. State of Bihar[23], the Court defined what exactly would create an establi shed practice. A consistent, regular, certain and predictable conduct, which differentiates itself from being a casual or irregular conduct, would be considered as a practice which is established and consistent. The practice also has to be reasonable and logical. The idea of expectation was explored in the decision of Union of India v. Hindustan Development Corporation[24], where distinction was made between à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“anticipationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  and à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“expectationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ , and it was held that any right or desire or mere disappointment did not refer to as expectation. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Expectationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  under the doctrine is in the sense of being à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“justifiably legitimate and protectableà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ . And the legitimacy is to be based on the consent of law or an recognized procedure naturally observed. Yet some misunderstanding still exists regarding à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“legitimate expectationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  being considered a right. The case of M.P. Oil Extraction v. State of M.P.[25], held that legitimate expectation in a suitable scenario would comprise of an enforceable right. Nonetheless, Supreme Court made it evident in Ram Pravesh Singh[26], by explicitly discarding the idea of à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“legitimate expectationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  being a legal right. The court said that it can only apply in circumstances where an expectation is involved, which is justified and made legitimate by an established past practice or an express promise. Additionally, as per Confederation of Ex-Serviceman Assns v. Union of India[27], the principle only gives an opportunity to a fair hearing and just procedure to be followed only to the person who is expecting. Only such a person is entitled to know the reasons for denial or order by the Court to the authorities to follow the established practice. B. Principle of Legitimate Expectation and Equity The principle is considered to be a part of the principle of equity, as was se en in M.P Oil Extraction case[28], where equitable treatment was given to companies with whom the Government had contracted to supply sal seeds based on the renewal clause within the contract. The principle of equity was further endorsed in the case of Raj Kumar v. Union of India[29], where it was recognized that a person could be debarred of availing of the principle of legitimate expectation based on the conduct of the person himself. In this case, legitimate expectation was opposed based on equity, as the BSF guards tried to gain retiral benefits without validly retiring. In the case of National Buildings Construction Corporation[30], the functional aspect of legitimate expectation was stressed upon and it was said that the situation should be dealt with in a similar manner as if the principle of promissory estoppel was applied. Furthermore, this case along with Punjab Communication v. Union of India[31], laid down an additional criteria where the doctrine of legitimate expect ation cannot be applied. It was established through previous case laws that the only exception to legitimate expectation was public interest. However, now in terms of significant legitimate expectation the action or order of the administrative authority had to go through a test of reasonableness before assessing public interest. If the order or action fulfills the Wednesbury principle of reasonableness, so that the action or order of the authority is not unreasonable or even adverse, the public interest involved in the order can be evaluated. VI. Conclusion From the discussion and analysis of the case laws and authorities above, it becomes clear that the doctrine of legitimate expectation imposes an obligation and duty on the administrative authorities to act fairly and reasonably. The principle owes its origin application to various kinds of situations and is very broad in itself. Hence, it is not feasible to come up with an exhaustive list of actions which will give rise to situations of legitimate expectation. This is because government activities in themselves are vast and expansive and change as time goes by. However, one thing has become certain that courts cannot pretend to have jurisdiction in order to review an administrative act under the cover of legitimate expectation as I would be unfair on the part of the court. It is commonly agreed that legitimate expectation generally allows the person to approach Court and to claim the right of fair representation or hearing in a situation where his rights were affected arbitrarily. The doctrine does not give opportunity to claim remedy at once from the administrative authorities as no clear right as such is directly involved. Consequently, even if the safeguard is guaranteed based on legitimate expectation, it does not guarantee total relief to the person. The appeal of legitimate expectation still remains a very feeble appeal in Indian Administrative Law. A right to benefit based on legitimate e xpectation is negative by the courts more often than is known. In a situation of confusion over the idea of legitimate expectation what needs to be cleared is that the concept envisions not only à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“expectationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  but à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“legitimate expectationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  meaning which there is something super-imposed to à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“expectationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ - a certain kind of promise or assurance by the administrative authorities or the fact that the expectation was established by some long-standing practice. The concept is embedded more in the principles of equity than in legal rules. Bibliography I. Books: SP Sathe, Administrative Law (seventh edition), Lexis Nexis (2010) MP Jain and SN Jain, Principles of Administrative Law (sixth edition) Lexis Nexis (2013) IP Massey, Administrative Law, Eastern Book Company (2001) II. Articles Lord Denning, Recent development in the Doctrine of consideration, Modern Law Review, Vol. 15, 1956. Sushant Rochlan, Doctrine of Legitimate Expectation, January 21, 2011, available at https://lex-warrier.in/2011/01/doctrine-of-legitimate-expectation/ [Last seen on 14th February, 2015] III. Case Laws Schmidt v. Secy of Stare for Home Affairs (1969) 2 WLR 337 R. Clerk, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“In pursuit of Fair Justiceà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  AIR 1996 (J) 11 Council of Civil Service Union v. Minister for Civil Service, (1983) UKHL 6 National Buildings Construction Corporation v S. Raghunathan , (1998) 7 SCC 66. Breen v. Amalgamated Engg. Union , (1971) 2 QB 175 Attorney General of Hongkong v. Ng Yuen Shiu , (1983) 2 AC 629 Council of Civil Service Union v. Minister of Civil Services , 1985 AC 374 R v Secy of State for Home department, Ex. P. Ruddock, (1987) 1 WLR 1482 R v. Secy of State for Home Deptt., Ex. P. Asif Mahmood Khan , (1984) I WLR 1337 State of Kerela v. K.G Madhavan Pillai , AIR 1989 SC 49 Scheduled Castes and Weaker Section Welfare Association v. State of Karnataka , [1991]2 SCC 60 Navjyoti Coop. Group Housing Society v. Union of India , (1992) 4 SCC 477. Food Corpn. of India v. Kamdhenu Cattle Feed Industries (1993) 1 SCC 71. Ram Pravesh Singh v. State of Bihar , 1999 (1) BLJR 625 Union of India v. Hindustan Development Corporation , (1993) 3 SCC 499 M.P. Oil Extraction v. State of M.P (1997) 7 SCC 592. Confederation of Ex-Serviceman Assns v. Union of India , (2006) 8 SCC 399 M.P Oil Extraction case ,1990 (0) MPLJ 675 Raj Kumar v. Union of India , 1969 AIR 180 National Buildings Construction Corporation case , 72 (1998) DLT 121 Punjab Communication v. Union of India , (1999) 4 SCC 727 1 [1] Lord Denning, Recent development in the Doctrine of consideration, Modern Law Review, Vol. 15, 1956. [2] See, Schmidt v. Secy of Stare for Home Affairs (1969) 2 WLR 337 [3] R. Clerk, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“In pursuit of Fair Justiceà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  AIR 1996 (J) 11 [4] SP Sathe, Administrative Law (seventh edition), Lexis Nexis (2010) [5] MP Jain and SN Jain, Principles of Administrative Law (sixth edition) Lexis Nexis (2013) [6] Id. [7] Council of Civil Service Union v. Minister for Civil Service, (1983) UKHL 6 [8] National Buildings Construction Corporation v S. Raghunathan , (1998) 7 SCC 66. [9] Sushant Rochlan, Doctrine of Legitimate Expectation, January 21, 2011, available at https://lex-warrier.in/2011/01/doctrine-of-legitimate-expectation/ [Last seen on 14th February, 2015] [10] Id. [11] Schmidt case, Supra n. 1 [12] Breen v. Amalgamated Engg. Union , (1971) 2 QB 175 [13] Attorney General of Hongkong v. Ng Yuen Shiu , (1983) 2 AC 629 [14] Council of Civil Service Union v. Minister of Civil Services , 1985 AC 374 [15]R v Secy of State for Home department, Ex. P. Ruddock, (1987) 1 WLR 1482 [16] R v. Secy of State for Home Deptt., Ex. P. Asif Mahmood Khan , (1984) I WLR 1337 [17] State of Kerela v. K.G Madhavan Pillai , AIR 1989 SC 49 [18] Scheduled Castes and Weaker Section Welfare Association v. State of Karnataka , [1991]2 SCC 604 [19] IP Massey, Administrative Law, Eastern Book Company (2001) [20] Id. [21] Navjyoti Coop. Group Housing Society v. Union of India , (1992) 4 SCC 477. [22] Food Corpn. of India v. Kamdhenu Cattle Feed Industries (1993) 1 SCC 71. [23] Ram Pravesh Singh v. State of Bihar , 1999 (1) BLJR 625 [24] Union of India v. Hindustan Development Corporation , (1993) 3 SCC 499 [25] M.P. Oil Extraction v. State of M.P (1997) 7 SCC 592. [26] Supra 22 [27] Confederation of Ex-Serviceman Assns v. Union of India , (2006) 8 SCC 399 [28] M.P Oil Extraction case ,1990 (0) MPLJ 675 [29] Raj Kumar v. Union of India , 1969 AIR 180 [30] National Buildings Construction Corporation case , 72 (1998) DLT 121 [31] Punjab Communication v. Union of India , (1999) 4 SCC 727

Analysis of South Africa Essay - 1329 Words

Introduction The country selected is South Africa. It is the country of choice because I want to visit the African Continent someday. I am also part African American and want to learn more about the African culture. Location/Geography South Africa is located on the southern tip of Africa. The country has a coastline along the Atlantic and Indian oceans, which makes the country known for its fishery. There are several African countries that border South Africa. The countries include Lesotho, Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Mozambique and Swaziland (Republic of South Africa, 2013, geography and climate). The climate of South Africa is subtropical and consists of grasslands, forests, deserts, mountain, beaches, and coastal wetlands (Republic†¦show more content†¦Economy In 2011, South Africa’s gross national income per capita was 10,710 U.S currencies. The country spent a total expenditure on health per capita of 942 U.S dollars in the year 2011. The total expenditure on health of gross domestic product was 8.5% (WHO, 2013). The United States exports 7.3 billion U.S. dollars’ of goods to South Africa in 2011. The top exports included vehicles, gold, oil, electrical machinery, wheat, dairy product s, poultry meat, and vegetable oil. South Africa exported 9.5 billion U.S. dollars’ worth of products to the United States. Some of the top categories of the U.S. imports were platinum, diamonds, iron and steel, fresh fruit, tree nuts, and wine and beer (USTR, 2013). State of Health Disease is one of the primary concerns in South Africa today. The distribution of disease can be divided into three categories. Communicable disease accounts for 60.5%, non-intentional injuries 11.2% and non-communicable for 28.4% of the distribution of disease (WHO, 2010, South Africa: health statistics profile 2010). The leading causes of disease in South Africa are human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), tuberculosis, violence, and road accidents (WHO, 2010, health statistics profile 2010).HIV/AIDS has the highest cause of disease by accounting for 40.7% of the diseased population. Tuberculosis follows afterwards with 5.4%, violence at 4.8%, and road traffic accident at 2.6% (WHO, 2010, healthShow MoreRelatedSouth Africa Pest Analysis1602 Words   |  7 PagesSOUTH AFRICA HISTORY In the history of South Africa, the earliest known settlers of the country were the San and Khoekhoe people, collectively known as Khoisan. They were two distinct cultural groups. The first Europeans to arrive in South Africa were the Portuguese Seafarers who initiated the sea route to India in 1488. 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How Has Attachment Theory Been Used to Account for Differences in the Development of Social Relationships free essay sample

This assignment considers the answers to many fundamental questions. For example: What is it that differentiates the way in which individuals conduct social relationships; Why does one person behave differently to another; Is it fair to suggest that development through childhood plays a role in this; Is there a theory that can account for these differences? One theory that has attempted to address some of these questions is attachment theory. This assignment will therefore look at attachment theory from its beginnings and the key figures that are involved in shaping the theory. It will attempt to analyse any contradictions of the theory and look at the way in which attachment theory may influence a child’s development and behaviours, development through to adulthood and the ability for adults to conduct social relationships. Attachment theory is a psychological theory which investigates the bond between individuals; it in effect refers primarily to the relationship and bond between a baby and their primary caregiver. We will write a custom essay sample on How Has Attachment Theory Been Used to Account for Differences in the Development of Social Relationships? or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Early attachment research was conducted through experiments with animals. Dependency on a presence of another being as an infant is essential to survival within all species. As Psychoanalyst Winnicott (1964: p. 88) observed â€Å"there is no such thing as a baby†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦if you set out to describe a baby, you will find you are describing a baby and someone. A baby cannot exist alone, but is essentially part of a relationship†. This occurrence of dependency is not unique to human beings. Harlow (1958) conducted studies with macaque monkeys which observed infant monkeys separated from their birth mothers who had then been reared in isolation cages. After placing objects in the cages, in the form of a wire mesh cone which had a n attachment of a food source and a cloth cone, it was observed that â€Å"the infant monkeys overwhelmingly preferred to cling to the cloth mother†¦.. in spite of the fact that the only the wire mother was their source of food† (Oates, Lewis et al. p. 19). The results of the studies conducted contradicted the behaviourist framework. In summary, the behaviourist framework would suggest that the monkey should form the bond or attachment with the object which provides food, where the food is the primary reinforcer and the object the secondary reinforcer. Influenced by Harlows’ work, Bowlby (1969, p. 194) considered the importance of an infants’ relationship with its primary caregiver. This perspective therefore led him to become a founder of attachment theory. Bowlby (1969) defined attachment as a â€Å"lasting psychological connectedness between human beings†. Bowlby (1969) in essence believed that attachment styles were developed during childhood predominantly through the relationship between the child and the primary caregiver and that these attachment styles would influence the individual throughout adulthood. Bowlby (1969) did not believe that only one attachment could be formed or indeed that a single attachment could be described to be the most beneficial. Instead he suggested that objects could be used and be helpful in aiding development of individuals. According to attachment theory, throughout childhood and after repeated experiences, a system of thoughts, memories, beliefs, emotions, expectations and behaviours of oneself and others are formed, thus an Internal Working Model (IWM) was developed. IWM helps â€Å"individuals predict and understand their environment, engage in survival promoting behaviors such as proximity maintenance, and establish a psychological sense of felt security† (Bretherton, 1985; Sroufe Waters, 1977). Bowlby (1969) has been somewhat criticised by some for his work with attachment theory and there are arguments for and against this work. It is suggested that there was political motivation behind Bowlby’s (1969) initial research and a motivation to drive mothers back to being the primary caregiver. An additional factor to consider is that Bowlby (1969) suggests that the initiation for the need of attachment comes from the child. It could be argued however, that if this were the case, would parents ever leave their children alone? However, there is further research that supports this attachment theory such as discussed earlier where it has been shown that there are strong links between primary caregivers and other species. In addition, studies such as the strange situations study have shown that young children can find separation from their primary caregiver as threatening. The strange situations study considered identifying infant attachment types through controlled observation of infants. Another influential theorist in attachment was Ainsworth et. l (1978). She developed the notion of ‘strange situation’, to incorporate an observational study developed to measure the type of attachment that a child had formed. The children observed were aged between 12-18 months and the study consisted of eight episodes. The episodes were as follows: †¢ Mother (or primary caregiver) enters room with child, child explores and settles at which point stranger enters †¢ Stranger talks to mother and then subsequently talks or plays with child †¢ Mother leaves the room Stranger stays and attempts to interact with child †¢ Mother returns and the stranger leaves. †¢ Mother leaves again †¢ Stranger returns and continues to attempt to interact with child †¢ Mother returns and stranger leaves. (Oates, Lewis et al, 2005) From the results of the observation, Ainsworth concluded that there were three main types of classifications of infants.